POS Week 4

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paradigm
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impressive scientific achievement that it shows the way into new ways of studying reality and reaching for new and more scientific successes
paradigm evolves to include
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fundamental theories (all scientists agree to); more breakthrough (standard examples of new theories); shared scientific values; shared methodological prescriptions
Normal science - Thomas Kuhn
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scientists agree what problems they need to tackle, what are the methods of scientific research and which results count as scientifically valid - this is the system and if it works well, we're in the state of normal science
Does anomaly influence the whole paradigm?
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Normal science upholds certain norms and these are no longer under discussion; when there is an anomaly, scientists try to solve it within the existing paradigm, only if efforts fail, the problem is investigated and it may lead to a scientific revolution
Four elements of a paradigm
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1. Symbolic generalisations; 2. Exemplars; 3. Scientific values; 4. Methodological prescriptions
Symbolic generalisations
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allow for theories to be depicted through the use of symbols
Exemplars
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examples of how to apply a theory
scientific values
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social-institutional dimension of a paradigm
methodological prescriptions
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how to observe? What counts as an observation?
Revolutionary science
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change of paradigms; revolutionary growth of knowledge; taking another picture as guide in solving hitherto unsolved puzzles
Conclusions based on Kuhn
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1. Truth only exists within paradigms; 2. No independent criterion to choose between paradigms, this allows the idea of relativism; 3. Science is a human activity
Ideal of Positive Science
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There cannot be a science solely based on observation and logic; Popper says that we can only falsify a theory; Kuhn, Duhem and Quine say that we can neither falsify nor confirm; sacrificing falsifying observation is often a rational thing to do

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